Backcasting

Sputnik 1 replica.

Khrushchev In Vienna 1961. 

Sergey Korolev (1907-1966).
Lead Soviet rocket engineer.

Yuri Gagarin 1961

Gagarin and Khrushchev celebrate at Red Square. 

Nikita Khrushchev greets Gagarin at Vnukovo airport. 14. ​april 1961.

Backcastingmål: Den første mand på månen
Målet sættes af USAs præsident Kennedy i 1961 og indleder dermed et rumkapløb med Sovjetunionen, der var kommet foran med Sputnik 1 i 1957.
Inden 1970 skal USA lande en mand på månen. Årsagen til det nye mål er at Baggrunden for backcastingmålet  
Sovjetunionen er blevet førende i raketteknologi med opsendelsen af Sputnik 1 i 1957. Kennedy øger NASAs budget til at kunne løfte opgaven.
Debat om mål
Målet skal vælges ud fra at der ikke er risiko for at Sovjetunionen når målet først.
Det debatteres om det er det rigtige mål at sende en mand til månen eller nøjes med at sende en satellit i kredsløb om månen. Derudover kan fokus også være på mere praktisk anvendelige mål, f.eks udvikling af satelitter, men det vurderes, at sætte en mand på månen er hvor man bedst kan overgå Sovjetunionen.

Strategisk plan til at nå målet - Apollo program
Praktisk: Der skal skaffes penge til projektet og derefter bygges en rumraket og uddannes mandskab.
Den strategiske plan har 5 hovedelementer:
Politik: Kennedys tale søger folkelig- og dermed financiel opbakning til projektet.
Kultur, ideologi og politik: Den frie verden skal være førende.
Geopolitik: USA rivaliserer med Sovjetunionen.
Human Resource (HR): Valg af ledelse og ingeniører.
Naturvidenskab: Brændstof, legeringer, beregninger mm.

Realisering af den strategiske plan 
Valg af ledere: James E. Webb 
The second administrator of NASA, from 1961 to 1968.
Overseeing all the first manned launches in the Mercury through Gemini programs, 
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_E._Webb
Leverandører (contractors) vælges.

Mål realisering
1969: Den første mand på månen. 
Fejring ... Flight controllers celebrate the successful conclusion of the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission on July 24, 1969, at NASA's Mission Control Center in Houston.

Kennedy, John F. 1960s rhetoric represented space as a vision of the American Dream based on components of a national identity   
In excluding blacks from the American Dream, the Dream lost its meaning, based as it was upon equality, opportunity, and democracy.
Yet, ironically, it was used in space discourse to showcase American superiority, thus highlighting its own hypocrisy.
Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War 1945-1961 (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1998).
Borstelmann, Thomas. The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001.
www.pugetsound.edu ... Krenzer.pdf

1955
International Geophysical Year (IGY)  
The history of the Vanguard Test Vehicle Three (TV3) project dates back to the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Orbiting a satellite became one of the main goals of the IGY. As early as July 1955, President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced, through his press secretary, that the United States would launch "small, unmanned, earth-circling satellites as part of the U.S. participation in the I.G.Y."
www.en.wikipedia.org ... 

1957
Sovjetunionen sender en sputnik i kredsløb omkring jorden og demonstrerer dermed at Sovjetunionen kan bombe USA ved hjælp af raketter.
www.da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumkapløbet
www.rumfart.dk/faktasider/rumsonder/sputnik1

USA sender en raket op, men det lykkedes ikke, flopnik.
Newspapers in the United States published prominent headlines and articles noting the failure including plays on the name of the Russian satellite, Sputnik, such as "Flopnik",  "Kaputnik",  "Oopsnik", and "Stayputnik".  
... The Soviet Union, The United States' rival in the Cold War, exploited the disaster. A few days after the incident, a Soviet delegate to the United Nations inquired solicitously whether the United States was interested in receiving aid earmarked for "undeveloped countries".
www.en.wikipedia.org ... 

1958 
USA etablere NASA for at opbygge et rumprogram.

Richard Neustadt, told Kennedy in December 1960 that the United States had been in a race for dramatic space achievements, a race that the Soviet Union was winning because of their superior space launch capability. 
www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4407vol7Chap2.pdf

The Mercury project was formally initiated in October 1958 and at that time the Space Task Group was formed to manage the project.
www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/frwrd1.htm

Eisenhower og Kennedys valg mellem bombefly eller fremtidens raketter
JFK’s Forgotten Constitutional Crisis 
Consequently, in 1958, the Eisenhower administration decided to downgrade the B-70 project ... And in February 1961, just two months into his term, Kennedy decided to phase out the Valkyrie ... Siding with his Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, Kennedy decided, on sober reflection that he didn’t want to spend any more money on a plane that, at a time when both intercontinental ballistic missile and surface-to-air missiles were becoming more accurate and sophisticated, looked like the lumbering vehicle of an outmoded age. 
www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017 ... 

1961  
I april 1961 sendteSovjetunionen kosmonauten Jurij Gagarin i kredsløb om Jorden.
In response to the flight of Yuri Gagarin as the first man in space, Kennedy in 1961 committed the United States to landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade.
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States
Den 25. maj 1961 proklamerede Kennedy fra kongressens talerstol, at inden 1960erne var omme, ville USA have landsat et menneske på Månen. I den nære fremtid ville Sovjetunionen blive ved med at vinde små sejre i rumkapløbet. Men det store mål var at være den første nation, der fragtede et menneske til og fra Månen og det kapløb skulle vindes af USA.
www.1960erne.dk/vemaanen.php

1967  
Apollo 1 var en amerikansk rumkapsel, der blev ødelagt af en brand d. 27. januar 1967 på startrampen under en øvelse. Besætningen var de astronauter, der var blevet valgt til den første Apollo-mission, og alle tre døde under ulykken. Efter branden blev der foretaget flere ændringer i opbygningen af kommandomodulet med mindre brændbare materialer, 21% ilt-atmosfære og en enklere åbnemekanisme i lugen.
www.da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_1

From circumlunar mission to lunar landing mission
... Concurrent with the completion of this year of study effort in the Spring of 1961, two events of utmost significance to the program took place.
The first U.S. manned suborbital flight, of Lt. Cdr. Alan B. Shepard, Jr., was successful. Shortly thereafter, President John F. Kennedy announced the national objective of a manned lunar landing mission within the decade.​ ...  specifications were changed to acknowledge the requirement for a lunar landing rather than a circumlunar mission.
Selection of the Saturn C-5 as the lunar launch vehicle in the Fall of 1961.
In late 1961, the Space Task Group (redesignated Manned Spacecraft Center, November 1, 1961),
www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/frwrd1.htm

Apollo-programmet blev indledt i 1961 hvor præsident John F. Kennedy erklærede at USA skulle lande en mand på Månen og få ham sikkert tilbage til Jorden i løbet af 1960'erne. Målet blev indfriet med Apollo 11 i 1969.
www.da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo-programmet

1961-1962: Kennedy tale, USA mand på månen inden 1970.
President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University on 12 September 1962
Kennedy stood before Congress on May 25, 1961, and proposed that the US "should commit itself to achieving the goal.
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_choose_to_go_to_the_Moon

JFK speaking at Rice University 
www.youtube.com/watch ... 
Text of Kennedy`s Rice Stadium moon speech 
...  But why, some say, the moon? Why choose this as our goal?
... The growth of our science and education will be enriched by new knowledge.
... this generation does not intend to founder in the backwash of the coming age of space. ... all this costs us all a good deal of money. That budget now stands at $5,400 million a year. ... rocket more than 300 feet tall, the length of this football field, made of new metal alloys, some of which have not yet been invented. ​... So it is not surprising that some would have us stay where we are a little longer to rest, to wait.
... Within these last 19 months at least 45 satellites have circled the earth. Some 40 of them were "made in the United States of America" and they were far more sophisticated and supplied far more knowledge to the people of the world than those of the Soviet Union. ... To be sure, we are behind, and will be behind for some time in manned flight. But we do not intend to stay behind, and in this decade, we shall make up and move ahead.
www.er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/ricetalk.htm

First non-human hominid in space  - on January 31, 1961, 
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ham_(chimpanzee)

1962, budget debat 
Based on this and other analyses, NASA requested a 30 percent increase
in its Fiscal year 1962 budget over what had been proposed by President Eisenhower.
The Bureau of the Budget reacted negatively to such a large increase, and on
22 March 1961 Webb, Dryden, and Seamans met with President Kennedy and
his staff to discuss how best to proceed. At that meeting, NASA noted that
President Eisenhower had eliminated from the NASA budget all funds related to
human flight after Project Mercury, including the Apollo spacecraft and heavier
lift boosters and rocket motors. Webb told the President that “the Soviets have
demonstrated how effective space exploration can be as a symbol of scientific
progress and as an adjunct of foreign policy. . . . We cannot regain the prestige
we have lost without improving our present inferior booster capability.”
www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4407vol7Chap2.pdf

Kennedy’s attitude toward the space program was complex. He entered the White House thinking space could be an area for tension-reducing cooperation with the Soviet Union. 
Kennedy fending off the concerns of NASA Administrator James Webb 
 (“We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard”). This contradiction is apparent in a tape recording of a White House meeting that occurred Nov. 21, 1962. The recording, released in 2001 by the John F. Kennedy Library in Boston, documents Kennedy fending off the concerns of NASA Administrator James Webb that the United States risked a very public failure in its push to achieve the lunar landing goal. Webb asserted that we should have broader goals in space activities. “This is, whether we like it or not a race,” Kennedy said. "Everything we do [in space] ought to be tied into getting to the moon ahead of the Russians.
www.nasa.gov/feature/john-f-kennedy-and-nasa

Cubakrisen - 16. oktober 1962 - 28. oktober 1962
www.da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubakrisen
www.faktalink.dk/titelliste/cubakrisen
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis
www.gulfnews.com/opinion ... 

The Apollo Spacecraft. A Chronology vol. 1 - IV - Table of Contents 
www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4009/contents.htm

The Apollo Spacecraft. A Chronology vol. 1 - Ertel and Morse 
The birth of the Apollo Program and its early development. 
Selection of major spacecraft contractors. 
www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4009/cover.htm
www.twitter.com/nasahistory

The Apollo Spacecraft. A Chronology vol. 2 - Morse and Bays 
November 8, 1962 - September 30, 1964
The second vol. concerns the teenage period, up to September 30, 1964. 
During 1963, formal contract negotiations with the previously selected
major spacecraft contractors were completed. 
APPENDIX 5 - APOLLO PROGRAM FLIGHT OBJECTIVES 
www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4009vol2.pdf

The Apollo Spacecraft. A Chronology vol. 3  - Brooks and Ertel 1976
Covers the sixteen-month period from October 1, 1964, to January 20, 1966. 
... One of the most confining of these decisions was the agreedupon
payload of the Saturn V. It was initially agreed that the design allowable
weight for the Apollo spacecraft was 90 000 pounds. Included within
this were the Command and Service Module, the Lunar Excursion Module,
and the adapter structure. 
Also in 1963 the Office of Manned Space Flight was reorganized under its
new leader, George E. Mueller, to strengthen its systems engineering and
integration role in overall management of the Apollo-Saturn Program
www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4009vol3.pdf

The Apollo Spacecraft Chronology vol. 4 - Ertel and Newkirk
Covers a period of eight and a half years, from January 21, 1966, through July
13, 1974.  
www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4009vol4.pdf

Apollo 11 billeder  
www.history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/galleries.htm
www.apolloarchive.com/apollo_gallery.html

--

John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon
Logsdon, John M. (2011). John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 
... challenge to send humans to the Moon remains a beacon of national resolve ... 
Modstand: Hesitation arose, but Kennedy's pragmatism ultimately prevailed.
www.bibliotek.dk/da/search ... 
www.books.google.dk/books/about/John_F_Kennedy_and_the_Race ...
... He chronicles the intragovernmental struggle for consensus and highlights the policymaking contributions of presidential aide Ted Sorensen, science advisor Jerome Wiesner, Vice President Lyndon Johnson and NASA administrator James Webb.
www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/john-m-logsdon ... 
Chapter two: Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon
... Roger Launius, in his essay “Interpreting the Moon Landings: Project Apollo and the Historians,” History and Technology, Vol. 22, No. 3 (September 2006): 225–55, has provided a comprehensive and thoughtful overview of many of the books written about Apollo. 
www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4407vol7Chap2.pdf

Contrary to much of the mythology that sprung up around Apollo, which is still clung to by some in the space advocacy community, Kennedy was not particularly interested in space. 
www.thespacereview.com/article/1786/1

Apollo: The Race to the Moon 
Charles A. Murray and Catherine Bly Cox, Apollo: The Race to the Moon
New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), pp. 54–55.

The Decision to Go to the Moon 
John M. Logsdon, The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970), pp. 34–35. 

Apollo 11-missionen var den første bemandede månelanding.
Det var den femte bemandede mission i Apollo-programmet.
Neil Armstrong blev det første menneske, der betrådte Månen. 
www.da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11

Apollo 11 
www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo-11.html
www.twitter.com/NASAhistory

President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA

Apollo Mission Control Center - Mission Operations Control Room (MOCR)
Mission Operations Control Room in the Mission Control Center,
Building 30, during the Apollo 9 Earth-orbital mission.
www.nasa.gov/content/apollo-mission-control-center-0
The Historic Apollo Mission Control Center Will Be Restored 
Photo: Flight controllers celebrate the successful conclusion of the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission on July 24, 1969, at NASA's Mission Control Center in Houston.
Credits: NASA
www.nasa.gov/feature/the-historic-apollo-mission-control-center-will-be-restored

Ingeniører og rumraketter

America and Russia in space:  Wernher von Braun vs Sergei Korolev,
The biggest science programmes were the space missions of the 1960s when America and the Soviet Union competed to be the first to send a man to another world. “Space Race”
www.economist.com ... 

Operation Paperclip 
Tyske ingeniører hentes til USA.
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Paperclip

Wernher von Braun 
Tyskeren Wernher von Braun vælges som ledende raketingeniør, på trods af hans fortid i nazi Tyskland, da han er den eneste der kan løfte opgaven.
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun

Saturn rocket  
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_(rocket_family)

TV 
From the Earth to the Moon  
www.nndb.com/films/183 ... 
www.imdb.com/title/tt0120570

--

Burrows, William E. (1999). This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age. Modern Library.

Christol, Carl Q. The International Law of Outer Space. Vol. 55. From Naval War College International Law Studies 1965. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966.

“Giant Leap for Mankind.” Ebony. September 1, 1969, p. 58. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost 

Kennedy, John F. Speech given at the Democratic National Convention, Los Angeles California, July 15, 1960.
Kennedy, John F. Speech given before a special joint session of Congress, May 25, 1961.
Kennedy, John F. Speech given at Rice University, Houston, Texas, September 12, 1962.

Bell, David and Martin Parker, eds. Space Travel & Culture: From Apollo to Space Tourism. Malden MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2009.

Benjamin, Marina. Rocket Dreams: How the Space Age Shaped Our Vision of a World Beyond. New York: Free Press, 2003.

Borstelmann, Thomas. The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001.

Cohen, Lizabeth. A Consumer’s Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003.

Cullen, Jim. The American Dream: A Short History of an Idea That Shaped a Nation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Divine, Robert A. The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhower’s Response to the Soviet Satellite. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Jillson, Cal. Pursuing the American Dream: Opportunity & Exclusion over Four Centuries. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004.

Kilgore, De Witt Douglas. Astrofuturism: Science, Race, and Visions of Utopia in Space. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.

Kohonen, Iina. “The space race and Soviet utopian thinking.” In Space Travel & Culture: From Apollo to Space Tourism, edited by David Bell and Martin Parker, 114-131. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2009.

Spigel, Lynn. “Outer Space and Inner Cities: African American Responses to NASA.” Welcome to the Dreamhouse: Popular Media and Postwar Suburbs, ed. Lynn Spigel. London: Duke University Press, 2001.

Stern, Mark. Calculating Visions: Kennedy, Johnson, and Civil Rights New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1992.

Von Eschen, Penny M. Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.

www.pugetsound.edu ... Krenzer.pdf

U.S. State Department to counter perceptions of American racism  
At the height of the ideological antagonism of the Cold War, the U.S. State Department unleashed an unexpected tool in its battle against Communism: jazz. From 1956 through the late 1970s, America dispatched its finest jazz musicians to the far corners of the earth, from Iraq to India, from the Congo to the Soviet Union, in order to win the hearts and minds of the Third World and to counter perceptions of American racism. 
Von Eschen, Penny M. Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674022607

Fidel Castro på besøg hos Nikita Khrusjtjov i Moskva i 1063.
www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012 ... 

Video: Castro Receives 'soviet Hero' Award From Khrushchev (1963)
www.youtube.com/watch ... 

Vanguard Rocket Launch, Flopnik
The Vanguard Test Vehicle Three (TV3) was launched on December 6, 1957 at Cape Canaveral Kennedy Space Center. 
The Vanguard Rocket was the first attempt by the United States to put a satellite into orbit around Earth. However, the rocket only rose a few feet before crashing violently back onto the launchpad. 
www.youtube.com/watch ... 

United States Space Explorations 1958 - Part 1
www.youtube.com/watch ... 

The exact cause of the accident was not determined with certainty, but it appeared that the fuel system malfunctioned. 
www.en.wikipedia.org ... 

President Kennedy commits to landing man on moon. May 25, 1961: In this special message to Congress, Kennedy lays out the country's ambitious space program.

3. June 1961: President Kennedy meets with Khrushchev in Vienna. 

President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University on 12 September 1962. www.youtube.com/watch ... 

Wernher von Braun

Apollo 11 letter den 16. juli 1969

Neil Armstrong på månen i 1969.

Flight controllers celebrate the successful conclusion of the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission on July 24, 1969, at NASA's Mission Control Center in Houston.